An Embattled Frontier
Guest post by Rick Schwertfeger
Captain, Frontier Partisans Southern Command, Austin, Texas. Part 2 of 3
As the years of the late 16th century period of “no conquest, no settlement” unrolled in Mexico, ambitious Spaniards continued to cast their eyes to what we now call New Mexico. Eventually, the government decided to try again. In 1595 the hugely rich Juan de Onate proposed to lead a private effort.
“Because of his great prestige and high reputation,” the king authorized Onate’s plan. Onate would fund the entire civil and military components of the expedition, with the king paying for the priests who would spread Christianity.
“’Trusting that you will carry out this discovery and pacification in a Christian spirit and with loyalty, I appoint you governor, captain-general, and pacifier of New Mexico.’”
Onate moved out in February, 1598. The aim was different than Coronado’s entrada almost 60 years before. With 200 men, 130 families, food, thousands of livestock, tools, and equipment, Onate would occupy the territory and establish a colony. The authorities in Mexico now expected the colonists to send back agricultural produce and products like leather goods. And, of course, the priests would “save the souls of the heathens” for the Spaniards’ god. Onate set himself up at San Gabriel – to be the capital of the province.
The first resistance happened at Acoma. Chief Zutucapan led an ambush of 30 Spanish soldiers, killing all but seven. Onate “proclaimed ‘war by blood and fire’” against Acoma. He sent out 70 soldiers who employed “cunning tactics;” and after a three-day battle, the pueblo was in flames, a thousand Indians were dead; 500 were taken prisoner; only two soldiers were killed. Punishment followed: Onate ordered one foot chopped off of each male over age 25, to be followed by 20 years of slavery. All males under 25 and all females were enslaved.
“The Spaniards, with their guns, swords, and horses, seemed almost godlike. Few Indians now dared to oppose them.”
But some did. In 1600 Jumano Indians refused a request for corn and beans. Onate led 50 soldiers “to punish the defiant natives.” They killed six Jumanos, hanged two chiefs, and burned the village. In 1601, Quarai puebloans killed two Spanish soldiers. Onate sent a large force for revenge.
“For five days Quarai held out despite immense losses.”
But the Spanish prevailed after killing 900 Indians. 200 were captured. And the town was burned.
Onate was replaced by Don Pedro Peralta in 1609. He succeeded in gaining footholds in numerous native communities. Natives frequently accommodated to the priests by nominally converting to Catholicism. They even participated in building churches in most communities. But many continued to practice their native religions underground. “Catholic on the weekends, pagan during the week.”
In order to obtain the agricultural products desired by the Spanish in Mexico, colonial authorities slowly set up essentially a feudal system. Native farmers — now basically serfs — paid taxes of agricultural produce to the authorities. And over the years, the Spanish increased and increased the taxes. The farmers became nearly slaves. The Spanish created a captive, oppressed native workforce, enforced with violence whenever necessary.
The priests overall disagreed with the severe mistreatment of the natives. Their preaching about their loving god increasingly fell on deaf ears as the oppression increased. Their goal of converting natives to Christianity came into conflict with the economic goals, “for the economy could not function without exploiting the natives.” The priests spoke up to Mexico for a lighter hand. But the Spanish authorities just wanted more and more production.
“The colony was torn by the struggle between the deputies of the King and the deputies of God.”
The priests were powerful enough that by 1613 they “were engaged in something very much like a civil war.” Soon Fray Isidro Ordonez, head of the church, “in effect, had seized control of New Mexico”!
A fascinating dynamic developed.
“Each side tried to undermine the authority of the other.”
In 1619 Governor Eulate, trying to weaken the priests’ power, actually “encouraged Indians to revive their kachinas (fantastic, flamboyant masked gods), pagan dances, their whole system of religious festivals.” Then the priests reacted, forbidding the native practices, sometimes by burning kivas (worship centers), and throwing masks and sacred images into the fires. This turned the natives against the priests — exactly Eulate’s intent. But without the priests as their allies, it was easier for the government to oppress the natives.
The priests persisted.
In 1661, “kachinas dances were prohibited, kivas were raided, masks and kachina dolls were destroyed. It became imposition of Christianity by force.”
The quasi-civil war erupted again, with then Governor Penalosa declaring that any native who participated in church-building would be put to death. While the priests flogged and even hanged natives “to save their souls,” the governors enslaved them, stole the produce of their fields, and imposed Spanish laws. Seeing the open feuding and experiencing constantly shifting terrors, natives developed contempt for the Spaniards.
In 1675, then Governor Juan Trevino acted on behalf of the priests.
“He sent cavalry against the leaders of the pagan revival.”
Forty-seven medicine men were arrested to stand trial for “practicing sorcery and promoting idolatry.” All were convicted. Four were hanged, the rest were whipped in public and jailed. The natives were outraged. The god of the Spaniards had failed them. But now they were prohibited from practicing their religion. It seemed that evil had been unleashed on their world.
After threats from 70 Christian Indians that the natives would abandon New Mexico for the lands to the east, Trevino freed the prisoners. But one of those released always had resisted Christianity, “clinging with fierce, bitter energy” to his native religion. He was Popé, a Tewa of the San Juan Pueblo. “Consumed by hatred, with a vision to restore his land to the old ways, hungering for vengeance” against those who whipped him and oppressed his spirit, Popé laid plans for revolt!
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Reference, Robert Silverberg, The Pueblo Revolt, 1970.
© Rick Schwertfeger [email protected] April, 2024